Biological control is a method of controlling pests (including insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases) that relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms. It can be an important component of integrated pest management (IPM) programs.
Biological control is defined as the reduction of pest populations by natural enemies and typically involves an active human role. Natural enemies of insect pests, also known as biological control agents, include predators, parasitoids, and pathogens. Biological control agents of plant diseases are most often referred to as antagonists. Biological control agents of weeds include herbivores and plant pathogens. Predators, such as birds, lady beetles and lacewings, are mainly free-living species that consume a large number of prey during their whole lifetime. Parasitoids are species whose immature develops on or within a single insect host, ultimately killing or fatally infecting the host. Most have a very narrow host range. Many species of wasps and some flies are parasitoids. Pathogens are disease-causing organisms including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. They kill or debilitate their own host and are relatively specific. There are three basic types of biological control strategies; conservation, classical biological control, and augmentation.
To conserve and encourage pest insect eating birds, including native plants and ornamental plants that supply berries, acorns, nuts, seeds, nectar, and other vegetative foods, and also bird nest building materials, encourages their presence, health, and reproduction. These qualities can also increase the visible population to enjoy in a garden. Using companion planting and the birds' insect cuisine habits is a traditional method for biological control agent pest control in an organic garden and any landscape, and in organic farming and sustainable agriculture. Installing specified nest boxes for mosquito-eating bats reduces a pest and increases endangered species conservation.
When introducing a high biological control to a new area, a primary concern is the host- or prey-specificity of the control agent. Generalist feeders (control agents that are not restricted to a single species or a small range of species) often make poor biological control agents, and may become invasive species themselves. For this reason, potential biological control agents should be subject to extensive testing and quarantine before release into any new environment. If a species is introduced and attacks a native species, the biodiversity in that area can change dramatically. When one native species is removed from an area, it may have filled an essential ecological niche. When this niche is absent it may directly affect the entire ecosystem.[citation needed]
Because they tend to be generalist feeders, vertebrate animals seldom make good biological control agents, and many of the classic cases of "biocontrol gone awry" involve vertebrates. For example, the cane toad, Bufo marinus, was introduced as a biological control and had significant negative impact on biodiversity. The cane toad was intentionally introduced to Australia to control the introduced French’s Cane Beetle and the Greyback Cane Beetle.[2] When introduced, the cane toad thrived and did not only feed on cane beetles but other insects as well. The cane toad soon spread very rapidly, thus taking over native amphibian habitat. The introduction of the cane toad also brought foreign disease to native reptiles. This drastically reduced the population of native toads and frogs. "The cane toad also exudes and can squirt poison from the parotid glands on their shoulders when threatened or handled. This toxin contains a cocktail of chemicals that can kill animals that eat it. Freshwater crocodiles, goannas, tiger snakes, dingos and northern quolls have all died after eating cane toads, as have pet dogs (Cane toad, 2003). This example shows how small mis-introduced organisms can alter the native biodiversity in large ecosystems in a rapid manner. A pyramid effect can take place if native species are reduced or eradicated. The domino effect keeps on going and can potentially exude on other bordering ecosystems until an equilibrium is reached.
A second example of a biological control agent that subsequently crossed over to native species is Rhinocyllus conicus. The seed feeding weevil was introduced to North America to control exotic thistles (Musk and Canadian). However, the weevil did not target only the exotic thistles; it also targeted native thistles that are essential to various native insects. The native insects rely solely on native thistles and do not adapt to other plant species. Therefore, they cannot survive. Biological controls do not always have negative impacts on biodiversity (Corry 2000).
Successful biological control reduces the population density of the target species over several years, thus providing the potential for native species to re-establish. In addition, regeneration and reestablishment programs can aid to the recovery of native species. Native species can be affected in a positive way as well. To develop or find a biological control that exerts control only on the targeted species is a very lengthy process of research and experiments. In the late 19th century, the citrus industry was in great fear when the cottony cushion scale was discovered. This organism could cause a great deal of economic loss to the industry. However, a biological control was introduced. The vedalia beetle and a parasitoid fly were introduced to control the pest. Within a few years time, the cottony cushion scale was controlled by the natural enemies and the citrus industry suffered little financial loss. Many exotic or invasive species can suppress the development of native species. The introduction of an effective biological control that reduces the population of the invasive species allows the rejuvenation of the native species. Biological controls can reduce competition for biotic and abiotic factors which can result in the re-establishment of the once over ran native species.[citation needed]
The invasive species Alternanthera philoxeroides (alligator weed) was controlled in Florida (U.S.) by the introduction of Agasicles hygrophila (alligator weed flea beetle)Invasive species are closely associated with biological controls because the environment in which they are invasive most likely does not contain their natural enemies. If invasive species are not controlled, biodiversity may be at great threat in the affected area. An example of an invasive species is the alligator weed.[3] This plant was introduced to the United States from South America. This aquatic weed spreads rapidly and causes many problems in lakes and rivers. The weed takes root in shallow water causing major problems for navigation, irrigation, and flood control. The alligator weed flea beetle and two other biological controls were released in Florida. Because of their success, Florida banned the use of herbicides to control alligator weed three years after the controls were introduced.[4] Similarly, Galerucella calmariensis, a leaf beetle, has been introduced in North America as a control agent for purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria).
Biological controls for invasive species also can have a negative impact on biodiversity. The cane toad, as mentioned previously, is an example of trying to control an invasive species. The cane toad was introduced to eradicate an invasive species. It became invasive, thus altering the biodiversity. The introduction of the cane toad could have caused more of a disturbance in biodiversity than the targeted species did.[citation needed]
Classical biological control is the introduction of natural enemies to a new locale where they did not originate or do not occur naturally. This is usually done by government authorities. In many instances the complex of natural enemies associated with an insect pest may be inadequate. This is especially evident when an insect pest is accidentally introduced into a new geographic area without its associated natural enemies. These introduced pests are referred to as exotic pests and comprise about 40% of the insect pests in the United States. Examples of introduced vegetable pests include the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis), one of the most destructive insects in North America. To obtain the needed natural enemies, scientists turned to classical biological control. This is the practice of importing, and releasing for establishment, natural enemies to control an introduced (exotic) pest, although it is also practiced against native insect pests. The first step in the process is to determine the origin of the introduced pest and then collect appropriate natural enemies associated with the pest or closely related species. The natural enemy is then passed through a rigorous quarantine process, to ensure that no unwanted organisms (such as hyperparasitoids) are introduced, then they are mass produced, and released. Follow-up studies are conducted to determine if the natural enemy becomes successfully established at the site of release, and to assess the long-term benefit of its presence.
There are many examples of successful classical biological control programs.
Joseph Needham noted a Chinese text dating from 304AD, Records of the Plants and Trees of the Southern Regions, by Hsi Han, which describes mandarin oranges protected by biological pest control techniques that are still in use today.
One of the earliest successes in the west was in controlling Icerya purchasi, the cottony cushion scale, a pest that was devastating the California citrus industry in the late 19th century. A predatory insect Rodolia cardinalis (the Vedalia Beetle), and a parasitoid fly were introduced from Australia by Charles Valentine Riley. Within a few years the cottony cushion scale was completely controlled by these introduced natural enemies.
Damage from Hypera postica Gyllenhal, the alfalfa weevil, a serious introduced pest of forage, was substantially reduced by the introduction of several natural enemies. 20 years after their introduction the population of weevils in the alfalfa area treated for alfalfa weevil in the Northeastern United States was reduced by 75 percent. A small wasp, Trichogramma ostriniae, was introduced from China to help control the European corn borer making it a recent example of a long history of classical biological control efforts for this major pest. Many classical biological control programs for insect pests and weeds are under way across the United States and Canada. The population of Levuana irridescens (the Levuana moth), a serious coconut pest in Fiji, was brought under control by a classical biological control program in the 1920s.
Classical biological control is long lasting and inexpensive. Other than the initial costs of collection, importation, and rearing, little expense is incurred. When a natural enemy is successfully established it rarely requires additional input and it continues to kill the pest with no direct help from humans and at no cost. Classical biological control does not always work. It is usually most effective against exotic pests and less so against native insect pests. The reasons for failure are not often known but may include the release of too few individuals, poor adaptation of the natural enemy to environmental conditions at the release location, and lack of synchrony between the life cycle of the natural enemy and host pest.
Lady beetles, lacewings, or parasitoids such as those from the genus Trichogramma are frequently released in large numbers (inundative release). Recommended release rates for Trichogramma in vegetable or field crops range from 5,000 to 200,000 per acre (1 to 50 per square metre) per week depending on level of pest infestation. Similarly, entomopathogenic nematodes are released at rates of millions and even billions per acre for control of certain soil-dwelling insect pests.
The spraying of octopamine analogues (such as 3-FMC) has been suggested as a way to boost the effectiveness of augmentation.[citation needed] Octopamine, regarded as the invertebrate counterpart of dopamine plays a role in activating the insects' flight-or-fight response. The idea behind using octopamine analogues to augment biological control is that natural enemies will be more effective in their eradication of the pest, since the pest will be behaving in an unnatural way because its flight-or-fight mechanism has been activated. Octopamine analogues are purported to have two desirable characteristics for this type of application: (1) they affect insects at very low dosages (2) they do not have a physiological effect in humans (or other vertebrates).[5][dubious ]
Mixed plantings and the provision of flowering borders can increase the diversity of habitats and provide shelter and alternative food sources. They are easily incorporated into home gardens and even small-scale commercial plantings, but are more difficult to accommodate in large-scale crop production. There may also be some conflict with pest control for the large producer because of the difficulty of targeting the pest species and the use of refuges by the pest insects as well as natural enemies.
Examples of habitat manipulation include growing flowering plants (pollen and nectar sources) such as Buckwheat near crops to attract and maintain populations of natural enemies. For example, hover fly adults can be attracted to umbelliferous plants in bloom.
Biological control experts in California have demonstrated that planting prune trees in grape vineyards provides an improved overwintering habitat or refuge for a key grape pest parasitoid. The prune trees harbor an alternate host for the parasitoid, which could previously overwinter only at great distances from most vineyards. Caution should be used with this tactic because some plants attractive to natural enemies may also be hosts for certain plant diseases, especially plant viruses that could be vectored by insect pests to the crop. Although the tactic appears to hold much promise, only a few examples have been adequately researched and developed.
Hoverflies resemble slightly darker bees or wasps and they have characteristic hovering, darting flight patterns. There are over 100 species of hoverfly whose larvae principally feed upon greenfly, one larva devouring up to fifty a day, or 1000 in its lifetime. They also eat fruit tree spider mites and small caterpillars. Adults feed on nectar and pollen, which they require for egg production. Eggs are minute (1 mm), pale yellow white and laid singly near greenfly colonies. Larvae are 8–17 mm long, disguised to resemble bird droppings, they are legless and have no distinct head. Semi-transparent in a range of colours from green, white, brown and black.
Dragonflies are important predators of mosquitoes, both in the water, where the dragonfly naiads eat mosquito larvae, and in the air, where adult dragonflies capture and eat adult mosquitoes. Community-wide mosquito control programs that spray adult mosquitoes also kill dragonflies, thus removing an important biocontrol agent, and can actually increase mosquito populations in the long term.
Other useful garden predators include lacewings, pirate bugs, rove and ground beetles, aphid midge, centipedes, spiders, predatory mites, as well as larger fauna such as frogs, toads, lizards, hedgehogs, slow-worms and birds. Cats and rat terriers kill field mice, rats, June bugs, and birds. Dogs chase away many types of pest animals. Dachshunds are bred specifically to fit inside tunnels underground to kill badgers.
More examples:
Four of the most important groups are:
Examples of entomopathogenic fungi:
Diagram illustrating the life cycles of Greenhouse whitefly and its parasitoid wasp Encarsia formosaMost of the biological controls listed above depend on providing incentives in order to 'naturally' attract beneficial insects to the garden. However there are occasions when biological controls can be directly introduced. Common biocontrol agents include parasitoids, predators, pathogens or weed feeders. This is particularly appropriate in situations such as the greenhouse, a largely artificial environment, and are usually purchased by mail order.
Some biocontrol agents that can be introduced include;
Biological control is defined as the reduction of pest populations by natural enemies and typically involves an active human role. Natural enemies of insect pests, also known as biological control agents, include predators, parasitoids, and pathogens. Biological control agents of plant diseases are most often referred to as antagonists. Biological control agents of weeds include herbivores and plant pathogens. Predators, such as birds, lady beetles and lacewings, are mainly free-living species that consume a large number of prey during their whole lifetime. Parasitoids are species whose immature develops on or within a single insect host, ultimately killing or fatally infecting the host. Most have a very narrow host range. Many species of wasps and some flies are parasitoids. Pathogens are disease-causing organisms including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. They kill or debilitate their own host and are relatively specific. There are three basic types of biological control strategies; conservation, classical biological control, and augmentation.
Conservation
The conservation of natural enemies is probably the most important and readily available biological control practice available to homeowners and gardeners. Natural enemies occur in all areas, from the private garden to the open field. They are adapted to the habitat and to the target pest, and their conservation is generally simple and cost-effective. Lacewings, lady beetles, hover fly larvae, and parasitized aphid mummies are almost always present in aphid colonies. Fungus-infected adult flies are often common following periods of high humidity. These naturally occurring biological controls are often susceptible to the same pesticides used to target their pest hosts. Preventing the accidental eradication of natural enemies is termed "simple conservation."To conserve and encourage pest insect eating birds, including native plants and ornamental plants that supply berries, acorns, nuts, seeds, nectar, and other vegetative foods, and also bird nest building materials, encourages their presence, health, and reproduction. These qualities can also increase the visible population to enjoy in a garden. Using companion planting and the birds' insect cuisine habits is a traditional method for biological control agent pest control in an organic garden and any landscape, and in organic farming and sustainable agriculture. Installing specified nest boxes for mosquito-eating bats reduces a pest and increases endangered species conservation.
[edit] Effects of biological control
[edit] Effects on native biodiversity
Biological control can potentially have positive and negative effects on biodiversity. Usually a biological control is introduced to an area to protect a native species from an invasive or exotic species that has moved into its area. The control is introduced to lessen the competition between native and introduced species. However, the introduced control does not always target only the intended species. It can also target native species.[1]
When introducing a high biological control to a new area, a primary concern is the host- or prey-specificity of the control agent. Generalist feeders (control agents that are not restricted to a single species or a small range of species) often make poor biological control agents, and may become invasive species themselves. For this reason, potential biological control agents should be subject to extensive testing and quarantine before release into any new environment. If a species is introduced and attacks a native species, the biodiversity in that area can change dramatically. When one native species is removed from an area, it may have filled an essential ecological niche. When this niche is absent it may directly affect the entire ecosystem.[citation needed]
Because they tend to be generalist feeders, vertebrate animals seldom make good biological control agents, and many of the classic cases of "biocontrol gone awry" involve vertebrates. For example, the cane toad, Bufo marinus, was introduced as a biological control and had significant negative impact on biodiversity. The cane toad was intentionally introduced to Australia to control the introduced French’s Cane Beetle and the Greyback Cane Beetle.[2] When introduced, the cane toad thrived and did not only feed on cane beetles but other insects as well. The cane toad soon spread very rapidly, thus taking over native amphibian habitat. The introduction of the cane toad also brought foreign disease to native reptiles. This drastically reduced the population of native toads and frogs. "The cane toad also exudes and can squirt poison from the parotid glands on their shoulders when threatened or handled. This toxin contains a cocktail of chemicals that can kill animals that eat it. Freshwater crocodiles, goannas, tiger snakes, dingos and northern quolls have all died after eating cane toads, as have pet dogs (Cane toad, 2003). This example shows how small mis-introduced organisms can alter the native biodiversity in large ecosystems in a rapid manner. A pyramid effect can take place if native species are reduced or eradicated. The domino effect keeps on going and can potentially exude on other bordering ecosystems until an equilibrium is reached.
A second example of a biological control agent that subsequently crossed over to native species is Rhinocyllus conicus. The seed feeding weevil was introduced to North America to control exotic thistles (Musk and Canadian). However, the weevil did not target only the exotic thistles; it also targeted native thistles that are essential to various native insects. The native insects rely solely on native thistles and do not adapt to other plant species. Therefore, they cannot survive. Biological controls do not always have negative impacts on biodiversity (Corry 2000).
Successful biological control reduces the population density of the target species over several years, thus providing the potential for native species to re-establish. In addition, regeneration and reestablishment programs can aid to the recovery of native species. Native species can be affected in a positive way as well. To develop or find a biological control that exerts control only on the targeted species is a very lengthy process of research and experiments. In the late 19th century, the citrus industry was in great fear when the cottony cushion scale was discovered. This organism could cause a great deal of economic loss to the industry. However, a biological control was introduced. The vedalia beetle and a parasitoid fly were introduced to control the pest. Within a few years time, the cottony cushion scale was controlled by the natural enemies and the citrus industry suffered little financial loss. Many exotic or invasive species can suppress the development of native species. The introduction of an effective biological control that reduces the population of the invasive species allows the rejuvenation of the native species. Biological controls can reduce competition for biotic and abiotic factors which can result in the re-establishment of the once over ran native species.[citation needed]
[edit] Effects on invasive species
Biological controls for invasive species also can have a negative impact on biodiversity. The cane toad, as mentioned previously, is an example of trying to control an invasive species. The cane toad was introduced to eradicate an invasive species. It became invasive, thus altering the biodiversity. The introduction of the cane toad could have caused more of a disturbance in biodiversity than the targeted species did.[citation needed]
[edit] Classical biological control
 | This article needs additional citations for verification. (July 2011) |
There are many examples of successful classical biological control programs.
Joseph Needham noted a Chinese text dating from 304AD, Records of the Plants and Trees of the Southern Regions, by Hsi Han, which describes mandarin oranges protected by biological pest control techniques that are still in use today.
One of the earliest successes in the west was in controlling Icerya purchasi, the cottony cushion scale, a pest that was devastating the California citrus industry in the late 19th century. A predatory insect Rodolia cardinalis (the Vedalia Beetle), and a parasitoid fly were introduced from Australia by Charles Valentine Riley. Within a few years the cottony cushion scale was completely controlled by these introduced natural enemies.
Damage from Hypera postica Gyllenhal, the alfalfa weevil, a serious introduced pest of forage, was substantially reduced by the introduction of several natural enemies. 20 years after their introduction the population of weevils in the alfalfa area treated for alfalfa weevil in the Northeastern United States was reduced by 75 percent. A small wasp, Trichogramma ostriniae, was introduced from China to help control the European corn borer making it a recent example of a long history of classical biological control efforts for this major pest. Many classical biological control programs for insect pests and weeds are under way across the United States and Canada. The population of Levuana irridescens (the Levuana moth), a serious coconut pest in Fiji, was brought under control by a classical biological control program in the 1920s.
Classical biological control is long lasting and inexpensive. Other than the initial costs of collection, importation, and rearing, little expense is incurred. When a natural enemy is successfully established it rarely requires additional input and it continues to kill the pest with no direct help from humans and at no cost. Classical biological control does not always work. It is usually most effective against exotic pests and less so against native insect pests. The reasons for failure are not often known but may include the release of too few individuals, poor adaptation of the natural enemy to environmental conditions at the release location, and lack of synchrony between the life cycle of the natural enemy and host pest.
[edit] Augmentation
This third type of biological control involves the supplemental release of natural enemies. Relatively few natural enemies may be released at a critical time of the season (inoculative release) or literally millions may be released (inundative release). Additionally, the cropping system may be modified to favor or augment the natural enemies. This latter practice is frequently referred to as habitat manipulation. An example of inoculative release occurs in greenhouse production of several crops. Periodic releases of the parasitoid, Encarsia formosa, are used to control greenhouse whitefly, and the predaceous mite, Phytoseiulus persimilis, is used for control of the two-spotted spider mite.Lady beetles, lacewings, or parasitoids such as those from the genus Trichogramma are frequently released in large numbers (inundative release). Recommended release rates for Trichogramma in vegetable or field crops range from 5,000 to 200,000 per acre (1 to 50 per square metre) per week depending on level of pest infestation. Similarly, entomopathogenic nematodes are released at rates of millions and even billions per acre for control of certain soil-dwelling insect pests.
The spraying of octopamine analogues (such as 3-FMC) has been suggested as a way to boost the effectiveness of augmentation.[citation needed] Octopamine, regarded as the invertebrate counterpart of dopamine plays a role in activating the insects' flight-or-fight response. The idea behind using octopamine analogues to augment biological control is that natural enemies will be more effective in their eradication of the pest, since the pest will be behaving in an unnatural way because its flight-or-fight mechanism has been activated. Octopamine analogues are purported to have two desirable characteristics for this type of application: (1) they affect insects at very low dosages (2) they do not have a physiological effect in humans (or other vertebrates).[5][dubious ]
Habitat or environmental manipulation is another form of augmentation. This tactic involves altering the cropping system to augment or enhance the effectiveness of a natural enemy. Many adult parasitoids and predators benefit from sources of nectar and the protection provided by refuges such as hedgerows, cover crops, and weedy borders. Also, the provisioning of natural shelters in the form of wooden caskets, boxes or (turnaround) flowerpots is a form of this. For example, the stimulation of the natural predator Dermaptera is done in gardens by hanging up turnaround flowerpots with straw or wood wool.
Mixed plantings and the provision of flowering borders can increase the diversity of habitats and provide shelter and alternative food sources. They are easily incorporated into home gardens and even small-scale commercial plantings, but are more difficult to accommodate in large-scale crop production. There may also be some conflict with pest control for the large producer because of the difficulty of targeting the pest species and the use of refuges by the pest insects as well as natural enemies.
Examples of habitat manipulation include growing flowering plants (pollen and nectar sources) such as Buckwheat near crops to attract and maintain populations of natural enemies. For example, hover fly adults can be attracted to umbelliferous plants in bloom.
Biological control experts in California have demonstrated that planting prune trees in grape vineyards provides an improved overwintering habitat or refuge for a key grape pest parasitoid. The prune trees harbor an alternate host for the parasitoid, which could previously overwinter only at great distances from most vineyards. Caution should be used with this tactic because some plants attractive to natural enemies may also be hosts for certain plant diseases, especially plant viruses that could be vectored by insect pests to the crop. Although the tactic appears to hold much promise, only a few examples have been adequately researched and developed.
[edit] Examples of predators
Ladybugs, and in particular their larvae which are active between May and July in the northern hemisphere, are voracious predators of aphids such as greenfly and blackfly, and will also consume mites, scale insects and small caterpillars. The ladybug is a very familiar beetle with various colored markings, whilst its larvae are initially small and spidery, growing up to 17 mm long. The larvae have a tapering segmented grey/black body with orange/yellow markings and ferocious mouthparts. They can be encouraged by cultivating a patch of nettles in the garden and by leaving hollow stems and some plant debris over winter so that they can hibernate.
Hoverflies resemble slightly darker bees or wasps and they have characteristic hovering, darting flight patterns. There are over 100 species of hoverfly whose larvae principally feed upon greenfly, one larva devouring up to fifty a day, or 1000 in its lifetime. They also eat fruit tree spider mites and small caterpillars. Adults feed on nectar and pollen, which they require for egg production. Eggs are minute (1 mm), pale yellow white and laid singly near greenfly colonies. Larvae are 8–17 mm long, disguised to resemble bird droppings, they are legless and have no distinct head. Semi-transparent in a range of colours from green, white, brown and black.
Hoverflies can be encouraged by growing attractant flowers such as the poached egg plant (Limnanthes douglasii), marigolds or phacelia throughout the growing season.
Dragonflies are important predators of mosquitoes, both in the water, where the dragonfly naiads eat mosquito larvae, and in the air, where adult dragonflies capture and eat adult mosquitoes. Community-wide mosquito control programs that spray adult mosquitoes also kill dragonflies, thus removing an important biocontrol agent, and can actually increase mosquito populations in the long term.
Other useful garden predators include lacewings, pirate bugs, rove and ground beetles, aphid midge, centipedes, spiders, predatory mites, as well as larger fauna such as frogs, toads, lizards, hedgehogs, slow-worms and birds. Cats and rat terriers kill field mice, rats, June bugs, and birds. Dogs chase away many types of pest animals. Dachshunds are bred specifically to fit inside tunnels underground to kill badgers.
More examples:
- Phytoseiulus persimilis (against spider mites)
- Amblyseius californicus (against spider mites)
- Amblyseius cucumeris (against spider mites)[6]
- Typhlodromips swirskii (against spider mites, thrips, and white flies)
- Feltiella acarisuga (against spider mites)
- Stethorus punctillum (against spider mites)
- Macrolophus caluginosus (against spider mites)
[edit] Parasitoid insects
Most insect parasitoids are wasps or flies. Parasitoids comprise a diverse range of insects that lay their egg on or in the body of an insect host, which is then used as a food for developing larvae. Parasitic wasps take much longer than predators to consume their victims, for if the larvae were to eat too fast they would run out of food before they became adults. Such parasites are very useful in the organic garden, for they are very efficient hunters, always at work searching for pest invaders. As adults they require high energy fuel as they fly from place to place, and feed upon nectar, pollen and sap, thereby pollinating plenty of flowering plants, particularly buckwheat, umbellifers, and composites will encourage their presence.Four of the most important groups are:
- Ichneumonid wasps: (5–10 mm). Prey mainly on caterpillars of butterflies and moths.
- Braconid wasps: Tiny wasps (up to 5 mm) attack caterpillars and a wide range of other insects including greenfly. A common parasite of the cabbage white caterpillar- seen as clusters of sulphur yellow cocoons bursting from collapsed caterpillar skin.
- Chalcid wasps: Among the smallest of insects (<3 mm). Parasitize eggs/larvae of greenfly, whitefly, cabbage caterpillars, scale insects and Strawberry Tortrix Moth (Acleris comariana).
- Tachinid flies: Parasitize a wide range of insects including caterpillars, adult and larval beetles, true bugs, and others.
- Encarsia formosa (against white flies)
- Eretmocerus spp. (against white flies)[7]
- Aphidius colemani (against aphids)
[edit] Biological control with micro-organisms
Various microbial insect diseases occur naturally, but may also be used as biological pesticides. When naturally occurring, these outbreaks are density-dependent in that they generally only occur as insect populations become denser.[edit] Bacteria and biological control
Bacteria used for biological control infect insects via their digestive tracts, so insects with sucking mouth parts like aphids and scale insects are difficult to control with bacterial biological control.[8] Bacillus thuringiensis is the most widely applied species of bacteria used for biological control, with at least four sub-species used to control Lepidopteran (moth, butterfly), Coleopteran (beetle) and Dipteran (true flies) insect pests.[edit] Fungi and biological control
Fungi that cause disease in insects are known as entomopathogenic fungi, including at least fourteen species of entomophthoraceous fungi attack aphids.[9] Species in the genus Trichoderma are used to manage some soilborne plant pathogens. Beauveria bassiana is used to manage different types of pest such whiteflies, thrips, aphids and weevils. A remarkable additional feature of some bicontrol fungi is their effect on plant fitness. Trichoderma species may enhance biomass production promoting root development, dissolving insoluble phosphate containing minerals. As many other fungi they evoke stress response of the plant facilitating further plant defence reactions.[citation needed]Examples of entomopathogenic fungi:
- Beauveria bassiana (against white flies, thrips, aphids and weevils)
- Paecilomyces fumosoroseus (against white flies, thrips and aphids)
- Metarhizium spp. (against beetles, locusts and grasshoppers, Hemiptera, spider mites[6] and other pests)
- Lecanicillium spp. (against white flies, thrips and aphids)
- Cordyceps species (sometines teleomorphs of the above: that infect a wide spectrum of arthropods)
[edit] Combined use of parasitoids and pathogens
In cases of massive and severe infection of invasive pests, techniques of pest control are often used in combination. An example being, that of the emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire, family Buprestidae), an invasive beetle from China, which has destroyed tens of millions of ash trees in its introduced range in North America. s part of the campaign against the emerald ash borer (EAB), American scientists in conjunction with the Chinese Academy of Forestry searched since 2003 for its natural enemies in the wild leading to the discovery of several parasitoid wasps, namely Tetrastichus planipennisi, a gregarious larval endoparasitoid,Oobius agrili, a solitary, parthenogenic egg parasitoid, and Spathius agrili, a gregarious larval ectoparasitoid. These have been introduced and released into the United States of America as a possible biological control of the emerald ash borer. Initial results have shown promise with Tetrastichus planipennisi and it is now being released along with Beauveria bassiana, a fungal pathogen with known insecticidal properties.[10][11][12][edit] Plants to regulate insect pests
Further information: List of repellent plants
See also: Ecologic pesticides and herbicides
Choosing a diverse range of plants for the garden can help to regulate pests in a variety of ways, including;- Masking the crop plants from pests, depending on the proximity of the companion or intercrop.
- Producing olfactory inhibitors, odors that confuse and deter pests.
- Acting as trap plants by providing an alluring food that entices pests away from crops.
- Serving as nursery plants, providing breeding grounds for beneficial insects.
- Providing an alternative habitat, usually in a form of a shelterbelt, hedgerow, or beetle bank where beneficial insects can live and reproduce. Nectar-rich plants that bloom for long periods are especially good, as many beneficials are nectivorous during the adult stage, but parasitic or predatory as larvae. A good example of this is the soldier beetle which is frequently found on flowers as an adult, but whose larvae eat aphids, caterpillars, grasshopper eggs, and other beetles.
- Some plants have chemical defenses in order to regulate pests. The geranium has developed such a defense against Japanese beetles, one of the most damaging and expensive pests to control when it comes to ornamental and turf plants. The geranium’s petals contain a chemical compound that paralyzes the beetle within 30 minutes of ingestion. The beetle will remain paralyzed for several hours and will typically regain movement within 24 hours. However, while paralyzed the beetle is very vulnerable to its predators and is usually hunted before the paralysis subsides. Agricultural Research Service (ARS) scientists are working to isolate the chemical compound in geraniums that causes the paralysis in the beetles. Scientists hope to one day use this natural pesticide to control the population of beetles. In addition to this research ARS scientists are studying ways to help geranium leaves better hold on to pesticide chemicals that are sprayed on them, that way less pesticides will have to be applied to the leaves. [13]
[edit] Plants to regulate plants
The legume vine Mucuna pruriens is used in the countries of Benin and Vietnam as a biological control for problematic Imperata cylindrica grass. Mucuna pruriens is said not to be invasive outside its cultivated area.[14] Desmodium uncinatum can be used in push-pull farming to stop the parasitic plant, Striga.[15][edit] Directly introducing biological controls
Some biocontrol agents that can be introduced include;
- Encarsia formosa. This is a small predatory chalcid wasp which is parasitical on whitefly, a sap-feeding insect which can cause wilting and black sooty moulds. It is most effective when dealing with low level infestations, giving protection over a long period of time. The wasp lays its eggs in young whitefly 'scales', turning them black as the parasite larvae pupates. It should be introduced as soon as possible after the first adult whitefly are seen. Should be used in conjunction with insecticidal soap.
- Red spider mite, another pest found in the greenhouse, can be controlled with the predatory mite Phytoseilus persimilis. This is slightly larger than its prey and has an orange body. It develops from egg to adult twice as fast as the red spider mite and once established quickly overcomes infestation.
- A fairly recent development in the control of slugs is the introduction of 'Nemaslug', a microscopic nematode (Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita) which will seek out and parasitize slugs, reproducing inside them and killing them. The nematode is applied by watering onto moist soil, and gives protection for up to six weeks in optimum conditions, Nemaslug nematodes are mainly effective with small and young slugs under the soil surface.
- A bacterial biological control which can be introduced in order to control butterfly caterpillars is Bacillus thuringiensis. This available in sachets of dried spores which are mixed with water and sprayed onto vulnerable plants such as brassicas and fruit trees. The bacterial disease will kill the caterpillars, but leave other insects unharmed. There are strains of Bt that are effective against other insect larvae. Bt israelensis is effective against mosquito larvae and some midges.
- A viral biological control which can be introduced in order to control the overpopulation of European rabbit in Australia is the rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus that causes the rabbit haemorrhagic disease.
- A biological control being developed for use in the treatment of plant disease is the fungus Trichoderma viride. This has been used against Dutch Elm disease, and to treat the spread of fungal and bacterial growth on tree wounds. It may also have potential as a means of combating silver leaf disease.
- Several species of dung beetle were introduced to Australia from South Africa and Europe during the Australian Dung Beetle Project (1965–1985) led by Dr. George Bornemissza of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation in order to biologically control the population of pestilent bush flies and parasitic worms[16].
- The parasitoid Gonatocerus ashmeadi (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) has been introduced to control the glassy-winged sharpshooter Homalodisca vitripennis (Hemipterae: Cicadellidae) in French Polynesia and has successfully controlled ~95% of the pest density.[17]
[edit] Negative consequences of biological pest control
In some cases, biological pest control could have unforeseen averse consequences that outweigh all benefits, often by becoming an invasive species. For example:- When the mongoose was introduced to Hawaii in order to control the rat population, it preyed on the endemic birds of Hawaii, especially their eggs, more often than it ate the rats. (Note, however, that the introduction of the mongoose was not undertaken based on scientific—or perhaps any—understanding of the consequences of such an action. The introduction of a generalist mammal for biocontrol of anything would be unthinkable by any reasonable standards today.)
- Cane toads (Bufo marinus) were introduced to Australia in the 1930s in a failed attempt to control the cane beetle, a pest of sugar cane crops. 102 toads were obtained from Hawaii and bred in captivity to increase their numbers until they were released into the sugar cane fields of the tropic north in 1935. It was later discovered that the toads could not jump very high and so they could not eat the cane beetles which stayed up on the upper stalks of the cane plants. The toad population grew dramatically and eventually out-competed native species. Not only were these toads very harmful to the Australian environment, they were also very toxic to would-be predators such as the native snakes. [18]
- 5 cats brought to the subantarctic Marion Islands to catch mice in 1949 multiplied to 3,400 in about two decades and started to threaten local extinction of birds. They had to be infected with feline distemper virus. The rest were shot and completely eliminated by the 1990s.
- The sturdy and prolific mosquito fish was introduced from around the Gulf of Mexico to around the world in the 1930s and 40s to combat malaria; however, it was found to cause the decline of local fish and frogs through competition of other food source as well as eating their eggs.[19] (See Mosquitofish in Australia)
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